Rosetta Stone

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 The Rosetta Stone is an artefact that holds great historical and linguistic importance. This stele, made of granodiorite, contains inscriptions in three different scripts - Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, Demotic script, and Greek - making it a key piece for deciphering the Egyptian language.

This stone was created during the Hellenistic period under the rule of King Ptolemy V Epiphanes in 196 BC. It was likely placed in a temple before being moved to Fort Julien near Rashid (Rosetta) during late antiquity or the Mamluk period. In 1799, French officer Pierre-François Bouchard discovered this stone during Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. Its discovery sparked widespread interest as it was the first bilingual text found from ancient Egypt.

The Rosetta Stone has been on display at the British Museum since 1802 and is one of its most visited objects. The study of this decree began immediately after it arrived in London with Jean-François Champollion eventually announcing his transliteration of the Egyptian scripts in Paris in 1822. This breakthrough led to further advancements and understanding of ancient Egyptian literature and civilization.

Although there are other fragmentary copies of this decree known today, including earlier ones such as Decree of Alexandria (243 BC), Decree of Canopus (238 BC), and Memphis decree (218 BC), none hold quite as much significance as the Rosetta Stone.

Despite its damaged state, we can estimate that an additional 14-15 lines are missing from its top register based on similar steles from that time period. These comparisons also suggest that it may have had a rounded top with a scene depicting King Ptolemy V being presented to gods above it.

Erected after the coronation of King Ptolemy V, this stone contains a decree established by a congress of priests at Memphis. The date on the stele corresponds to 27 March 196 BC and marks the ninth year of Ptolemy V's reign.

During this time, Egypt was facing internal turmoil with young Ptolemy V being crowned at the age of 12 after his parents were murdered in a conspiracy involving his father's mistress Agathoclea. In addition, external political forces from Antiochus III and Philip V added to Egypt's problems as they sought to divide its overseas possessions.

The decree itself was unique as it was initiated by temples rather than by the king himself. This shows how important it was for Ptolemaic kings to secure favor from the priesthood in order to maintain their rule over the kingdom. The High Priests of Memphis held great influence throughout Egypt and therefore, it was crucial for Ptolemy V to gain their support.

To ensure widespread understanding, copies of the decree were placed in every temple inscribed in three languages - Egyptian hieroglyphs, Demotic and Greek - used by the government. This also highlights how despite being Greek-speaking rulers since Alexander's conquests, there was still an effort made to connect with and appease the literate Egyptian priesthood.

Although there have been various translations of this decree over time due to continuous development in our understanding of ancient languages, modern translations provide us with an accurate interpretation based on all three original texts found on different inscriptions related to this same Memphis decree.

Interestingly enough, although now known as "the Rosetta Stone", it is believed that this famous stele did not originate from Rashid (Rosetta) where it was discovered but more likely from a temple site further inland. It was later used as a quarry for new construction and eventually ended up in the foundations of a fortress built by Mameluke Sultan Qaitbay in the 15th century.

Aside from its historical significance, the Rosetta Stone has also helped refine our understanding of hieroglyphs through other inscriptions found after its discovery, such as the Nubayrah Stele, Elephantine and Noub Taha steles, and an inscription at the Temple of Philae. Together, these pieces have provided valuable insights into ancient Egyptian culture and language.

The story of the stone's rediscovery began with Napoleon's campaign in Egypt in 1798 which sparked interest and enthusiasm for all things Egyptian across Europe. During this time, a group of French technical experts known as the Commission des Sciences et des Arts accompanied the expeditionary army to Egypt. It was on their way to strengthening defences near Fort Julien when Lieutenant Pierre-François Bouchard discovered a slab with inscriptions that would later be known as the Rosetta Stone.

This discovery was announced to Napoleon's newly founded scientific association in Cairo and soon after made its way into newspapers where it caught the attention of scholars around Europe. The stone was then transported to Paris where copies were made by skilled individuals such as Jean-Joseph Marcel and Antoine Galland using innovative techniques.

However, as tensions between France and Britain rose during this period, British forces under General John Hely-Hutchinson landed at Aboukir Bay in March 1801 leading up to an 18-month-long siege resulting in Menou's surrender on August 30th. A dispute arose over ownership of archaeological discoveries made by French scholars during their time there including the Rosetta Stone.

After much negotiation between Hutchinson and Menou over who had rightful ownership of these artefacts, it was ultimately decided that they belonged to neither party but instead should be given as gifts from one country to another according to agreements outlined within Capitulation Alexandria signed by representatives from both sides.

It is unclear how exactly the transfer of the stone into British possession occurred, with differing accounts from those involved. However, it was eventually brought to England aboard a captured French frigate and presented to King George III before being placed in the British Museum where it has remained on display since 1802.

Throughout the years, there have been efforts to preserve and protect this valuable artefact. In 2004, a specially built case was created for its display in the Egyptian Sculpture Gallery at the British Museum. The Rosetta Stone has also undergone conservation measures while remaining visible to visitors during this process.

Decipherment

 The hieroglyphic script had remained a mystery since the fall of the Roman Empire. With few Egyptians left who could read them, hieroglyphs were no longer used as widely as they once were and their meaning became lost over time.

Attempts at deciphering this ancient writing system were made by various scholars throughout history, with little success until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. The stone provided three parallel inscriptions - one written in Greek, another in Demotic (a cursive form of Egyptian), and a third in hieroglyphics - which served as a starting point for translation efforts.

The Greek text on the stone was initially translated by Stephen Weston in 1802, followed by Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon's Latin and French translations later that year. Meanwhile, Richard Porson worked on reconstructing missing parts of the Greek text while Christian Gottlob Heyne produced a more reliable Latin translation.

Intrigued by an unknown script found alongside Greek names on papyri from Egypt, Swedish diplomat Johan David Åkerblad began working on what would become known as Demotic script. He was joined by Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy who realized that this middle text on the Rosetta Stone was also written in Demotic. Together they attempted to identify phonetic characters within it but struggled due to their lack of knowledge about ideographic symbols used alongside phonetic ones.

It wasn't until Thomas Young noticed similarities between demotic and hieroglyphic characters that progress towards decipherment truly began. In 1814 he corresponded with Jean-François Champollion who had been studying ancient Egypt extensively before being introduced to copies of the Philae obelisk inscriptions in 1822. From this, Champollion was able to identify phonetic characters and construct an alphabet of hieroglyphic symbols.

Champollion's work on deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics was groundbreaking and paved the way for future scholars to continue studying this ancient language. His discoveries were published posthumously, providing a comprehensive understanding of Ancient Egyptian grammar and a hieroglyphic dictionary.